Death Rituals

Ibaloi Tribes mummies in Benguet Province (credit images to:wmf.org) 

           The passing of a loved one is emotional and sometime traumatic, depending on how the individual died. Filipino people believe in the afterlife and feel it is important to pay respect and homage to the dead. The typical amount of time a wake lasts is between three to seven days.
             The Ibaloi Tribes of the Northern Philippines have a unique way that they pay homage to their dead. In their unique practice, they perform mummification on the body; then blind fold and tie the arms and legs of the deceased in a sitting position. By utilizing mummification, all of the body is preserved, including organs or body modification that the individual may have had. The spouses and or loved ones of the deceased will dress the body and sometimes put tobacco inside the individuals lip. They then place then carefully place the individual in a chair by the entrance of the home. The individual will stay there for the next eight days. “A bangil rite is performed by the elders on the eve of the funeral, which is a chanted narration of the biography of the deceased” (The Funeral Source n.d.). As the body being lowered into the ground during burial, two bamboo sticks are hit together by member in attendance. By doing so, the living is helping the deceased travel toward the heavens. Although an individual may have passed into another realm other than the one we are in, we may never consider the person fully gone. When we see an object the deceased individual was fond of or even the location where the individual may have passed away, we will always associate these things as being part of them. There is a connection with the person although they are not a solid manifestation, and loved ones will forever continue to pay respect and show remembrance for the deceased.

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            Another culture with unique death rituals is the now extinct Beothuk tribe of Newfoundland. There were many factors that contributed to the demise of the Beothuk Tribe. Most of the reasons were directly related to colonization and the lack of alliances with other tribes. For example, “Beothucks were killed by Europeans or died of European diseases like smallpox. Second, population pressures hurt the Beothuks. As Europeans forced more Indian tribes westward and northward, there was no longer enough food for all of them. The Beothucks were pushed into the barren interior of Newfoundland, and many of them starved to death” It is believed that the Beothuk believed in animism. This is the belief that plants, animals, and objects have their own soul and should be trated with respect. When a Beothuk member did, they would sew their dead into a casket made of Birch bark. The reason the Beothuk chose Birch bark is because it is a strong and water-resistant cardboard-like bark; it is an ideal material to craft into other useful things. Inside of the Birch bark casket with the dead, they also put the personal belongings of the person. “There were provisions and articles of daily use, such as packages of food, birch bark cups and moccasins, equipment related to hunting, including weapons and miniature canoe replicas, and tokens to ensure protection, such as bone carvings, animal teeth and bird's feet” (Beothuk Religious Beliefs and Practices n.d.). Their reasons for doing this ties back into their belief of animism. They do this because they “believe that after death, their spirits still roam the Earth” (Redish n.d.). When the living places the deceased’s belongings with them, they will then be able to use them in their next life. That is another example of how they believe they are respectful to all things.

            Both cultures have distinct death rituals. A similarity between the two is that both pay respect to their deceased by burying them with some of their belongings. They do this so they will have clothes and weapons for life in the afterlife. Another similarity is that both are buried in a coffin like container. This aspect reveals something about their idea of proxemics. Unlike the modern ideas of space, one can say that there is no “personal space”. A difference between the two is that the Ibaloi mummify their dead and the Beothuk do not. The Ibaloi preserve every aspect of their dead and the Beothuk do not. The process of preserving their dead completely shows that they believe that their dead should be highly respected and that they will live on past death. Another difference is that the Ibaloi publically display their dead at the entrance of their home unlike the Beothuk. They bury them relatively soon after the individual passes. The Ibaloi also help their dead find heaven and the Beothuk do not. This shows that even after life, one can still help another and work together.

Bibliography

"Beothuk Religious Beliefs and Practices." Beothuk Religious Beliefs and Practices. http://www.mun.ca/rels/native/beothuk/beo_religion.html. (Accessed December 7, 2014).

Redish, Laura and Lewis, Orrin. "Beothuk Indian Fact Sheet." Native Languages of the Americas. http://www.bigorrin.org/beothuk_kids.htm. (Accessed December 7, 2014).

"The Contrast in the Spiritual Beliefs of the Beothuk and the European Settlers." The Contrast in the Spiritual Beliefs of the Beothuk and the European Settlershttp://partner.galileo.org/schools/cody/hum10/riverrun/studentweb2/.. (Accessed December 8, 2014).

Marriage Ceremonies

When one thinks of marriage, one thinks of it as the union of two people; however, it is more than that. It is the union of two groups. In the Cherokee culture, it is forbidden to marry within one’s own group because the woman holds the family clan. Therefore they must participate in exogamy, or marrying outside of their exclusive clan. The marriages are usually arranged by the parents of the individuals. The location which the wedding ceremony happens is blessed for seven days. During a marriage ceremony, the bride is represented by both her mother, or clan mother, and her brother. The purpose of her brother standing by her is to vow that he will be responsible for teaching the children spiritual and religious matter, as all Cherokee uncles do. Before the ceremony the wedding party met at the center townhouse and bride and groom exchanged goods. The groom would present the bride with a ham of venison. The venison signifies that he will, “keep meat in the household” (Cherokee Nation Cultural Resource Center n.d.). The bride will give her groom an ear of corn. This symbolizes her willingness to be a good Cherokee housewife. After the exchange of the venison and corn, they feast and dance for hours. The wedding ceremony takes place by a sacred fire. After the bride and groom approach it, they are blessed by a priest or a priestess; all members in attendance of the wedding are blessed as well. The couple is then covered in a blue blanket and is removed at a certain time during the ceremony; they are then covered in a white one. The white blanket symbolizes two lives becoming unified and starting their new life together. Along with the ceremonial blanket covering, the couple must drink from the Cherokee Wedding Vase.

The vase holds one drink within it and two openings so the couple may drink it simultaneously, and is broken to seal the vows. After the ceremony finishes, the clans will celebrate with a feast and dancing for the remainder of the day.

Aboriginal man with his two wives

Marriage in a traditional Aboriginal society consists of an arranged marriage between two people from different groups. The marriages are arranged because they have a strong belief in making connections and being related to the right people is important. When two families come together they are forming an alliance for life; it is important to carefully choose who you want to work with. In a traditional Aboriginal society, “marriage is the central feature” (Hamilton 1981). They also believe that a child only strengthens that bond between the two people and their families. There are strict marriage laws the couple must follow, failure to obey those laws may cause tension between the families. “A man was not able to marry until he had undergone a significant part of the lengthy initiation process: thus, at marriage a man might be in his twenties or even thirties. Girls were usually between 14 and 20 years when they first married, and were frequently widowed at a young age” (Hamilton 1981).  It is not uncommon for a man’s first wife to be a widow, and the second wife will be younger and may even have a husband set out before she is born and grow up knowing who her future husband will be. As a man grows older and his status rises, it is common for him to participate in polygamy.

Although there is no formal written contract of the future marriage it is recommended that the woman marry the man. “Refusal to marry, or to perform obligations to family associated with marriage arrangements, would usually give rise to arguments, but if the prospective husband or wife persisted in refusal, renegotiation was possible. This might involve arranging a substitute or agreeing to compensate the aggrieved person in some way” (ALRC n.d.) The verbal agreement functions as a social contract between the families. Marriage ensures cooperation and the sharing of food resources between territories.

In both cultures, we can see that the marriages are arranges by the parents of the bride and groom. This type of marriage shows that the marriage is a union of the two people but more so a negotiation and alliance for when food is scarce or times are tough. This is a norm for indigenous cultures; they rely heavily on each other in times of need. Another similarity the cultures have in common is when a marriage takes place; the bride is younger than the groom. This may suggest that the individuals value the results of fertility, although the menstrual blood of the women may be seen as a form of pollution according to Mary Douglas’ anthropological model. Both cultures have specific criteria the couple must go through before they are allowed to marry. For example, the Cherokees must exchange the venison ham and the ear of corn; they function as the modern day wedding ring and symbolize their commitment to one another. In the Aboriginal society, there are specific laws that the couple must abide by.   A difference between the two ceremonies is that in the Cherokee marriage is not polygamous like the Aboriginal marriage. This clearly shows a difference in how they view relationships. The Aboriginal man having multiple wives elevates his status and creates more alliance, whereas the Cherokee man only has one wife and a single alliance with the bride’s family.

Bibliography

ALRC. Chapter Two: Aspects of Traditional. http://aija.org.au/Aboriginal%20Benchbook%202nd%20Ed/Chapter%202.pdf (accessed 12 7, 2014).

Australian Government Indigenous. http://www.indigenous.gov.au/. (Accessed December 8, 2014.)

Hamilton, A. Aboriginal Marriages and Family Structures. 1981. http://www.alrc.gov.au/publications/12.%20Aboriginal%20Marriages%20and%20Family%20Structures/marriage-traditional-aboriginal-societie (accessed 12 7, 2014).

Maney, Bigmeat. "Cherokee Wedding Vase." NYU EDU. http://https://files.nyu.edu/csw202/public/wedding/vase.html. (accessed 12 7, 2014).

"The Old Cherokee Wedding." The Old Cherokee Wedding. http://www.cherokee.org/AboutTheNation/Culture/General/TheOldCherokeeWedding.aspx. (accessed 12 7, 2014).

TSepeS, Tavana. "Cherokee Wedding Blanket.".http://www.klingon empire.org/forum/showthread.php?1755-Cherokee-Wedding-Ceremony. (accessed 12 8, 2014).

Coming of Age Ceremonies

Merriam- Webster defines coming of age as the, “the attainment of prominence, respectability, recognition, or maturity”. With every day that passes one learns important information that will enable them to be, “adult”.  The initiation is the liminal stage the boy must pass through. It shows his readiness for manhood and to be a warrior. Often, the liminal stage involves some form of physical hardship the participant must go through, they must prove they are capable of earning their new status. Like every culture, the Sateré-Mawé, the indigenous tribe of the Brazilian Amazon, has a distinct coming of age ceremony.  In order to achieve the status of a man, thirteen year old boys must go through the Bullet Ant Initiation. Once the jungle is searched for the Bullet Ants, a leader submerges them into an herbal solution which sedates the ants. They are weaved into gloves made out of leaves and yarn. The ant’s stinger is pointed toward the interior of the glove. After the sedation wears off the ants are greatly agitated. The boy’s hands and part of his arms are coated with charcoal in order to because the ant’s to be confused, this will make them sting more. After that step is complete, the leaf gloves are then placed on both of the young boy’s hands and the ants begin to sting. After ten minutes have passed, the ant venom will cause the boy’s hands and part of his arms to be temporarily paralyzed, he may also shake uncontrollably for days. Before the initiation is complete, the boy will go through the ordeal twenty times throughout a period of months or even years. Crying out during this process would demonstrate weakness, so it is rare that one does.

Young boy wearing the Bullet Ant gloves.

Elder waking up one of the initiates

Similarly, the Maasai of Southern Kenya also have coming of age ceremonies. However, there are several stages the boys must pass through in order to become men, they are Enkipaata and Emuratta. The first stage is Enkipaata, or pre circumcision ceremony. Boys around the age of fourteen through sixteen are gathered, separated from their families, and led across the land for about four months by group of elders. Houses are built in an area approved by the Oloiboni. The Oloiboni, “is a highly regarded spiritual leader in charge of Maasai religious, customs, and traditional affairs” (Maimai n.d.).  A chief of the boys, or Olopolosi olkiteng, is also chosen. This position is considered unfortunate because he is held responsible for all of the sins of the group. The boys must sleep outside in the forest the day before the Enkipaata. When they return the boys participate in a day of singing and dancing in traditional clothing. The most important coming of age ceremony however is the Emuratare, or circumcision and is performed shortly after puberty occurs. Circumcision signifies the change from of a boy into that of a man. In order to go through initiation the boy must perform certain task like “carrying a heavy spear and herding large herd of livestock.” (Maimai n.d.) By doing so, the boy proves himself to the community. The process of circumcision lasts eight days; the boy must herd cattle for seven of the eight days and on the final day the circumcision takes place before the sun rises by an experienced man. Upon successful completion, the newly circumcised boy, “would receive gifts of livestock from his relatives and friends. He would also gain a tremendous amount of respect for his bravery.” (Maimai n.d.) For the next four to eight months, the boy will remain in black cloths as he fully heals. Once the healing has been completed, he will emerge as a new person with a new status, a man and warrior.

Now that we’ve explored both the Sateré-Mawé and the Maasai coming of age practices we may determine if there are similarities or differences between the two. A similarity between the two is the fact that both ceremonies involve putting oneself through physical tests, whether it is endurance of dancing for an extended period of time or being able to withstand the feeling of hundreds of stinging ants. This could suggest that in both cultures, men must be able to withstand pain and engage in tasks that may not necessarily be pleasurable. Another similarity we may identify is that both ceremonies last an extended period of time. Recall that the Sateré-Mawé Bullet Ant Initiation lasted over several months and the Maasai Emuratta ceremony alone lasted eight days, not counting the Enkipaata ceremony. The males of both cultures must prove themselves to their fellow community members and earn their right to have the status of a man.  In both cultures, the boys have some sort of mentor or teacher that shares information verbally or by instructing them through activities. This shows that they believe most knowledge should come from elders and through experience. There are also some differences we may observe between the cultures. The first difference is in the Bullet Ant Initiation, the ants are the entity that are causing the physical harm to the boy, and in the circumcision it is the experienced elder performing the pain inflicting act. Another difference is the amount of time it takes the boy to heal after the coming of age ceremony occurs. After the Bullet Ant Initiation the boy may convulse for a few days due to the vast among of venom in the bloodstream, but it take several months for the Maasai boy to heal due to lack of modern medical techniques we use today after operations are performed. It is blatant that there are similarities and differences between the two cultures coming of age ceremonies, but what is most important to understand is that in order to be accepted and initiated with a new status among their communities the initiates must perform a task that will challenge the individual both physically and mentally.


Bibliography

A, Derek. 13 amazing coming of age traditions from around the world. September 9, 2014. http://www.globalcitizen.org/Content/Content.aspx?id=070c47a6-f0df-4680-88e7-a80158cdacc6 (accessed 12 6, 2014).

"Elder Waking Initiate." Unesco. 2010.<http://www.unesco.org/culture/ich/index.php?lg=en&pg=00407&include=slideshow.inc.php&id=00523&width=620&call=slideshow&mode=scroll>. (Accessed 8, 2014.)

A Critica Manaus. Pennsylvania State University. 2013. http://sites.psu.edu/mgeitnerrcl/2013/11/16/satere-mawe-initiation/. (accessed 12 6, 2014).

Maimai, Ole. Maasai Ceremonies and Rituals. http://www.maasai-association.org/ceremonies.html (accessed 12 6, 2014).